Publications

A Mixed-Methods Study of the Habituation Process in Wild Bornean Orangutans in West Kalimantan, Indonesia 

Boston University, Doctoral Program in Anthropology, defended April 2025

• Currently embargoed, I am happy to provide a copy on request.
• My dissertation examines the habituation process in wild Bornean orangutans through an ethnoprimatological lens, using theories and methods from both biological and sociocultural anthropology. By analyzing behavioral and physiological data across age-sex classes, life history stages, and individual traits, clear differences were found between habituated and unhabituated orangutans' activity patterns, stress physiology, and responses to human presence. Integrating ethnographic field notes and interviews with Indonesian field assistants provided critical context. Further, these qualitative data supported the quantitative findings, revealing how ecological pressures and individual experiences shape human-orangutan relationships. This research highlights the value of a relational, interdisciplinary approach to understanding primate behavior and supports more nuanced conservation and research practices. 

1. The Gunung Palung Orangutan Project: Twenty-five years at the intersection of research and conservation in a critical landscape in Indonesia 

 Knott, C. D., Kane, E. E., Achmad, M., Barrow, E. J., Bastian, M. L., Brubaker-Wittman, L. A., ... & Susanto, T. W. (2021). Biological Conservation. 

• The Gunung Palung Orangutan Project has studied wild Bornean orangutans in West Kalimantan, Indonesia since 1994, using non-invasive, integrative methods to examine how environmental variability shapes orangutan behavior, physiology, and health. Findings reveal that orangutans' slow reproduction and extended life history are key adaptations to these ecological pressures. Research on orangutan health, habitat needs, and population density directly informs conservation strategies, including local education initiatives, sustainable livelihood development, village forest management, and partnerships with Indonesian government agencies to combat threats like habitat loss and the illegal pet trade.

1. Energetic and Social Factors of Habituation Behaviors in Wild Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) in Gunung Palung National Park, Indonesia

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A., Susanto, T.W., and Knott, C.D. (2025). 94th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Biological Anthropologists.

2. The Energetics of Habituation in Wild Bornean Orangutans in Gunung Palung National Park, Indonesia. 

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A.,Kane, E.E., Knott, C.D., and Susanto, T.W. (2021). 7th Annual Meeting of the Northeastern Evolutionary Primatologists Conference.  

3. Habituation, Avoidance Strategies, and Social Learning in Wild Bornean Orangutans in Gunung Palung National Park, Indonesia

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A., Kane, E.E., Susanto, T.W., and C.D. Knott. (2020). Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (cancelled due to COVID-19).

4. A multi-community survey and interview project to assess human-orangutan conflict and the impacts of education and outreach near Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. 

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A. (2020). First Annual Integrative Conservation Conference.

5. Orangutan Nesting Behavior in Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. 

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A., Blackburn, A., DiGiorgio, A., Harwell, F.S., Kane, E.E., Susanto, T.W., and  Knott, C.D. (2019). 88th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists.  

1. A Review of the Habituation Process in Primatology

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A., DiGirogio, A., and Knott, C.D.

• This review paper examines the process of habituation in field primatology, clarifying definitions, tracing its history, and addressing common misconceptions. It discusses ethical considerations, influencing factors, and methods of measuring habituation and proposes a reframing of how habituated versus natural behavior is understood in primate studies. 
• This paper will be submitted in the Summer of 2025 for publication in the International Journal of Primatology.

2. Energetic and Social Factors of Behavioral Responses to the Habituation Process in Wild Bornean Orangutans in Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A. and Knott, C.D.

• This paper analyzes behavioral responses to habituation in a wild Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) population by comparing activity budgets—feeding, traveling, and resting—between habituated and unhabituated individuals. Unhabituated orangutans were found to spend a significantly lower percentage of time feeding and a significantly higher percentage of time traveling and resting compared to fully habituated orangutans, a pattern consistent across age-sex classes and independent of fruit availability. Additional findings suggest that the energetic and social costs of habituation behaviors help predict individual responses (e.g., fleeing, staying, or vocalizing), with these costs varying across age-sex classes, including between male morphs.
• This paper is based on a podium presentation I gave at the 94th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Biological Anthropologists in March 2025. It will be submitted for publication in Animal Behaviour in 2025.

3. Physiological Adaptation and Individual Variation in Wild Bornean Orangutan Urinary Cortisol During Habituation 

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A. and Knott, C.D.

•  This paper examines urinary cortisol levels in wild Bornean orangutans to assess physiological responses to the habituation process. While average cortisol levels did not differ significantly by habituation status, unhabituated individuals exhibited a greater range of urinary cortisol levels and more variability within these ranges, suggesting more frequent or intense stress responses. Age-sex class, fruit availability, and individual identity were stronger predictors of cortisol variation, indicating both evolutionary and individual adaptive reactions to human presence in the wild, with suggestions for applying these findings to conservation planning and orangutan-human conflict mitigation.
• Additional samples will be incorporated into the current dataset presented in this paper. After lab and statistical analysis of these samples, the final version of this paper will be submitted to Conservation Physiology or Hormones and Behavior.

4. An Ethnoprimatological Approach to Wild Orangutan Habituation

Brubaker-Wittman, L.A., Hansen, M.F., and Knott, C.D.

• This paper presents a mixed-methods analysis in which ethnographic qualitative data from field notes, interviews with Indonesian field assistants, and ad lib comments accompanying behavioral data are thematically analyzed and integrated with quantitative behavioral and hormonal data. Insights from conversations with field assistants help frame and support the quantitative findings, highlighting the importance of co-producing knowledge. The synthesis contextualizes statistical results on habituation responses and cortisol levels, demonstrating the value of a mixed-methods ethnoprimatological framework. 
• This paper will be submitted to the American Journal of Primatology.